Mount Sinai: Where Is It Really Located?

Moreover, the very environment in which the Exodus story takes place—deserts, wadis (dry valleys), oases, and mountain ranges—has undergone changes over millennia. Settlements disappeared, caravan routes were altered, and ancient names were forgotten. All of this makes the question "where is Mount Sinai really located?" an open question that requires crossing Bible, geography, ancient history, and archaeology.

What the Bible Actually Says About Mount Sinai

Before looking at maps and archaeological sites, academic studies begin by examining the biblical text itself. The central question is: what geographical clues does the text provide about Mount Sinai's location?

Names and General Region

Mount Sinai is also called Horeb in several passages, especially in Deuteronomy. Many scholars understand that Sinai and Horeb are two names for the same mountainous massif or broader region; others admit the possibility of distinct but nearby peaks.

The Bible places Sinai:

• in a desert region (Exodus 19:1–2);
• at some distance from Egypt, reached "three months after leaving the land of Egypt";
• associated with the land of Midian, where Moses was shepherding when he saw the burning bush "at the mountain of God, Horeb" (Exodus 3:1).

Midian, in turn, is known from biblical and extra-biblical sources as located east of the Gulf of Aqaba, in the region corresponding today to northwestern Saudi Arabia and part of Jordan. This led an entire line of studies to consider the possibility that Mount Sinai is outside the traditional Sinai Peninsula, more toward the Arabian side.

Exodus Itinerary

Another key clue is the Exodus itinerary, listed in Exodus 13–19 and Numbers 33. The order of places (Succoth, Etham, Pi-hahiroth, Marah, Elim, Wilderness of Sin, Rephidim, etc.) is used as a "geographical puzzle" by modern researchers. The problem is that:

• many of these toponyms have not been preserved in current names;
• different possible routes between the Nile Delta and the Sinai Peninsula or Arabia can be fitted to the texts with some degree of plausibility.

Therefore, the biblical text offers clues but not a ready-made map. From here, route models and location hypotheses enter.

The Traditional Location: Jabal Mūsā in the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)

The best-known answer to the question "where is Mount Sinai located?" is the traditional location: Jabal Mūsā ("Mountain of Moses" in Arabic), in the southern Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. This is where the famous St. Catherine's Monastery is located, a historical and spiritual heritage site visited by pilgrims since the 4th century AD.

How This Tradition Arose

The identification of Mount Sinai with Jabal Mūsā dates back to the early centuries of Christianity. Christian pilgrims, guided by monks and local populations, began to associate that imposing peak with the "mountain of God" of Exodus. In the 6th century, Emperor Justinian ordered the construction of a large fortified monastery at the foot of the mountain—the current St. Catherine's Monastery—which further consolidated the tradition.

From then on, medieval maps, travel accounts, pilgrimages, and liturgical traditions reinforced the idea that the biblical Mount Sinai was located there.

Arguments in Favor

Reference studies, such as those from the Biblical Archaeology Review and researchers associated with the Biblical Archaeology Society, highlight some strong points of this traditional identification:

• Historical continuity: for more than 1,500 years, Christianity has recognized that place as Mount Sinai;
• Dramatic landscape: the high granite massif, surrounded by valleys, fits well with the description of an impressive mountain where "all the people saw the thunder, lightning, and smoke rising";
• Ancient infrastructure: the existence of the monastery, ancient pilgrimage routes, and Christian and Byzantine inscriptions attests to continuous religious use of the area.

Criticisms and Limitations

Despite the weight of tradition, modern academia is cautious. Britannica itself clearly states that no positive identification can be safely made between Jabal Mūsā and the biblical Mount Sinai.

Among the main criticisms:

• Midian problem: if Midian was east of the Gulf of Aqaba, it's strange that Moses would have left Midian for such a distant mountain in the interior of the Sinai Peninsula, instead of something closer;
• Exodus route: some Exodus route models that try to follow the text with more geographical rigor make the detour to the extreme south of the peninsula less likely;
• Limited archaeological evidence: there is not, to date, a set of unequivocal archaeological findings that directly link Jabal Mūsā to a large Israelite camp datable to the Exodus period.

In summary, Jabal Mūsā is strong in tradition but weak as conclusive archaeological proof.

Har Karkom, Serabit el-Khadim, and Western Sinai: Proposals Within the Peninsula Itself

Not all scholars who reject Jabal Mūsā abandon the Sinai Peninsula. Some propose other mountains and regions within Egyptian territory itself, especially further north and west.

Har Karkom (Negev / Southern Israel)

One of the most cited names in recent literature is Har Karkom, in the Negev region, now in Israeli territory, near the Egyptian border. Archaeologist Emmanuel Anati and, more recently, Silvio Barbaglia and other authors, argue that Har Karkom would be the true Mount Sinai.

The main claims:

• The Har Karkom area presents thousands of rock carvings, stone altars, and evidence of religious cults dated to the Bronze Age;
• The site appears to have been an important pilgrimage center in antiquity, which matches the idea of a "holy mountain";
• Geographically, Har Karkom would be on a plausible route between Egypt and the region of Canaan.

However, critical works on the historicity of the Exodus and on the chronology of the findings remind us that many of these remains are earlier or cannot be directly associated with the traditional Exodus period, which weakens the identification.

Serabit el-Khadim, Gebel Khashm et-Tarif, and Other Western Sinai Hypotheses

Another line of research, such as that of Walter R. Mattfeld and other authors, proposes that Mount Sinai would be associated with the Serabit el-Khadim region and nearby mountains like Jabal Ghorabi and Jabal Saniya, in western Sinai. A specific article on archaeological criteria for identifying Sinai argues that this area better fits the evidence of worship and inscriptions found.

Researchers associated with the Association for Biblical Research have also suggested Gebel Khashm et-Tarif as a promising candidate, highlighting the presence of worship structures and possible camp remains in the region.

These "internal" hypotheses have some advantages:

• they keep Mount Sinai within what is traditionally called the "Sinai Peninsula";
• they try to reconcile more logical routes for the Exodus with effective archaeological findings;
• they avoid displacing the entire narrative scenario outside Egypt and Sinai, which would require more aggressive reinterpretations.

On the other hand, decisive discoveries that clearly link these locations to massive Israelite presence in the suggested period are still lacking.

Saudi Arabia, Petra, and Beyond: "External" Hypotheses for Mount Sinai

If some proposals keep Sinai in the Egyptian peninsula, others go further and place Mount Sinai in territory that is now Arab or Jordanian.

Jabal al-Lawz (Northwestern Saudi Arabia)

One of the most popular hypotheses outside formal academic circles is the identification of Mount Sinai with Jabal al-Lawz in northwestern Saudi Arabia. This hypothesis gained strength in books, documentaries, and productions aimed at the general public.

Arguments used by its proponents include:

• the association of Sinai with Midian, which was indeed in the Arab region east of the Gulf of Aqaba;
• biblical descriptions of fire, smoke, and tremors, which some relate to possible volcanic activity or striking visual characteristics of certain mountains;
• supposed findings of stone enclosures, inscriptions, and rock formations that would be interpreted as remains of the Israelite camp or the golden calf episode.

However, an extensive critical study published on an academic platform argues that the evidence presented so far for Jabal al-Lawz is weak, lacks adequate dating, and often relies on overly speculative interpretations of petroglyphs and natural formations. Most biblical scholars and archaeologists remain quite skeptical of this hypothesis.

Shara / Petra Region (Jordan)

Another intriguing "external" proposal appears in a study by Charles Rogers, which suggests that Mount Sinai would be at a high point in the Shara mountain range, east of Petra, Jordan. The article, available in PDF format, argues that by considering certain astronomical phenomena (such as Halley's Comet's passage) and ancient perception of signs in the heavens, it would be possible to reconstruct an Exodus itinerary leading to a mountain used as sheep pasture in the Petra region.

Although this type of astronomical approach is considered quite heterodox by many researchers, it shows how the question "where is Mount Sinai located?" opens space for creative hypotheses—and how Sinai's location continues to be a fertile topic for new attempts at historical reconstruction.

Hybrid Proposals and Number of Hypotheses

Review studies remind us that more than a dozen different locations have been proposed for Mount Sinai, including points in the Sinai Peninsula, southern Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.

This multiplicity of hypotheses is, in itself, evidence that:

• the biblical text is sufficiently open to allow different readings;
• archaeology, so far, has not "locked" the debate with incontestable evidence.

How Scholars Try to Answer the Question: "Where Is Mount Sinai Located?"

Faced with so many possibilities, how does academia work? What does a serious researcher do to try to identify Mount Sinai's location?

Textual Criteria

The first step is to read the biblical text in depth:

• analyze Hebrew terms for desert, mountain, valley, etc.;
• compare Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy;
• observe how other parts of the Bible refer to Sinai or Horeb (for example, in Kings and the Prophets).

Studies like "A study on the traditions concerning the location of Mount Sinai and the route of the Israelites into the wilderness" analyze Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions, as well as modern proposals, showing how different schools interpret the same set of texts in divergent ways.

Geographic and Route Criteria

Then come geographic criteria:

• Plausible distance between Egypt, Red Sea (or Gulfs of Suez/Aqaba), Wilderness of Sin, Wilderness of Paran, and Sinai;
• Types of terrain mentioned: camping regions with water, large valleys where "all the people could stand before the mountain," etc.;
• Travel time mentioned (for example, "three months until reaching Sinai").

Classic biblical research maps, such as those produced by Edward Robinson and others in the 19th century, already attempted to cross this information with field observation. Modern research continues this work with digital cartography resources and satellite images.

Archaeological Criteria

Finally, archaeological criteria:

• presence or absence of large camp remains;
• altars and sanctuaries that may be linked to a primitive monotheistic cult;
• inscriptions in proto-Sinaitic or other alphabets suggesting connection with Western Semitic populations;
• dating by pottery, carbon-14, or stratigraphy.

Articles like "How to identify Mt. Sinai by using the Archaeological Evidence" argue that any serious proposal needs to minimally reconcile biblical text, geography, and archaeological evidence—and remind us that there are currently about 13 main competing proposals.

Is There Any Academic Consensus on Where Mount Sinai Is Located?

With so much published research, it's natural to ask: is there any consensus? The answer today is no—but there are some important points of convergence.

Points of Consensus

No Definitive Proof

No site, so far, has presented a set of evidence strong enough to be accepted by most experts as "the" Mount Sinai. Even authors defending specific proposals admit the presence of gaps.

Sinai Must Be in One of the Major Candidate Regions

Most serious researchers agree that Mount Sinai should be located:

• either somewhere in the Sinai Peninsula (including proposals like Jabal Mūsā, Har Karkom, Serabit el-Khadim, Gebel Khashm et-Tarif);
• or in the broader region involving northwestern Saudi Arabia and southern Jordan, especially because of the connection with Midian and certain readings of the Exodus route.

Textual Sources Are Ambiguous

Studies like Yoel Elitzur's, discussing "biblical considerations in favor of a southern location," show that the text itself can be interpreted to support different routes—which explains the multiplicity of hypotheses.

Points of Divergence

Despite these common points, there are severe divergences on topics such as:

• The chronology of the Exodus (15th century BC, 13th century BC, or another period?);
• The extent of the Israelite people in the desert (larger or smaller population, with impact on archaeological expectations);
• The weight to be given to tradition and pilgrimage compared to physical archaeological evidence.

Additionally, authors like Hershel Shanks remind us, in recent reviews, that to this day no hypothesis has killed the others: all present strengths and weaknesses, and the topic remains open.

What All This Means for Faith, Tourism, and Biblical Studies

The uncertainty about Mount Sinai's exact location is not just an academic curiosity; it has different impacts for people of faith, for religious tourism, and for the field of biblical studies.

For Those Who Read the Bible with Faith

For readers who view the Bible as God's Word, the question "where is Mount Sinai located?" is important but not central. The theological point is:

• God spoke;
• the covenant was established;
• the Law was delivered.

Knowing whether this occurred at Jabal Mūsā, Har Karkom, or Jabal al-Lawz does not change the core of the spiritual message. Many theologians remind us that the Bible, first and foremost, was not written as an atlas but as a narrative of covenant, salvation, and revelation.

For Religious Tourism

In the field of tourism, however, the traditional location carries enormous weight. The Sinai Peninsula, with St. Catherine's Monastery, trails to the summit of Jabal Mūsā, and dramatic landscapes, is today one of the most sought-after destinations by Christian, Jewish, and Muslim pilgrims.

Even if academia cannot guarantee with 100% certainty that this was the biblical Mount Sinai, the location:

• concentrates centuries of tradition;
• offers infrastructure for visitation;
• has become a consolidated symbol in popular devotion.

For Biblical and Archaeological Studies

For biblical scholars and archaeologists, the question of Mount Sinai's location is a living research field. It allows:

• testing methodologies for reading ancient texts;
• refining understanding of biblical geography;
• integrating data from distinct fields (archaeology, astronomy, philology, history of religions).

New archaeological surveys, satellite images, pottery analyses, and comparative studies of inscriptions may still tip the pendulum in favor of one hypothesis or another in the future. For now, however, the scenario is one of controlled debate, not absolute certainty.

Conclusion: Mount Sinai, Where Is It Really Located?

After traversing traditions, routes, archaeological sites, and academic articles, the honest conclusion is this:

Mount Sinai is real as a theological and historical character in the Bible, but its geographical location remains unidentified with certainty by modern science.

Tradition points to Jabal Mūsā in the southern Sinai Peninsula, and this will likely continue to be the most important pilgrimage and devotional reference site. But academic research shows that there are also robust hypotheses—though incomplete—in places like Har Karkom, Serabit el-Khadim, Gebel Khashm et-Tarif, Jabal al-Lawz, and even in the Petra region.

For a portal that wishes to offer dense and deep content on Bible, archaeology, and history, the best path is to:

• clearly present each of these hypotheses;
• indicate the main academic sources;
• explain to the reader, with transparency, that the question "where is Mount Sinai really located?" remains open—and precisely because of this, it is so fascinating.

For Christian and Jewish researchers committed to both faith and historical investigation, this balanced posture is fundamental. Instead of using archaeology only to "prove" a preconceived viewpoint, they treat Mount Sinai as a field of study where biblical text, tradition, and material evidence dialogue. This allows readers of a biblical news portal to understand that it is possible to believe in the Sinai revelation and, at the same time, critically follow each new hypothesis about its location, without sensationalism, but with informed curiosity.

Content exploring comparative maps, interviews with experts, timelines of discoveries, and analyses of recent documentaries can transform the question "where is Mount Sinai really located?" into a starting point for high-level biblical and historical education, positioning the portal as a serious reference in Portuguese on the topic.