Although there is no "Bible" of the Ammonites, Moabites, or Edomites, increasing archaeological and epigraphic discoveries in Jordan confirm the existence of these Iron Age kingdoms, located near Israel and Judah, exactly as described in the Hebrew Bible. One of the most fascinating discoveries was a monumental statue of an Ammonite king, the first of its scale found in the region, dating back to the Iron Age. These discoveries reveal to us that Ammon, Moab, and Edom were organized kingdoms with tribal structures, their own kings, and the worship of national gods, reflecting characteristics similar to those of Israel and Judah.
Map showing the location of the Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites.
Ammonites: Origin, Etymology, and Territory
The origin of the Ammonites, according to the Bible, is linked to Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot with his younger daughter (Genesis 19:38). The etymology of their name, "Ammon" or "Bene Ammôn" (sons of Ammon), suggests a tribal identity. The Ammonite territory encompassed the northern plateau of Transjordan, centered in Rabbah (modern Amman), along the banks of the Jabbok River. This territory was strategically important, marking the border with Israel.
Relationship with Israel
The Ammonites frequently engaged in conflicts with Israel. For example, King David defeated them (2 Samuel 12:26-31), but periods of alliance also occurred, such as during the time of Solomon, who took Ammonite women as wives (1 Kings 11:1-7). The relationship was marked by territorial tensions and religious differences.
Worship
The main god of the Ammonites was Milcom, mentioned in the Bible as an abomination (1 Kings 11:5). Excavations in Amman revealed temples and statues associated with Milcom, including artistic representations that highlight his importance in Ammonite identity.
Citadel of Amman, located in the heart of Amman.
The Citadel of Amman, located in the heart of Amman, Jordan, is one of the seven hills that formed the ancient capital of the Ammonites, Rabbah. Buried beneath this hill is an impressive Iron Age structure built with limestone blocks. Much of this construction remains hidden beneath the Temple of Hercules, a later Roman period work that currently dominates the site.
Excavations revealed several votive figurines associated with this structure, suggesting its religious significance. Due to its size, location, and archaeological context, some scholars believe this could have been the main temple dedicated to Milcom, the supreme deity of the Ammonites, reinforcing the central role of the Citadel in the spiritual and political life of this ancient kingdom.
Inscription from the 9th century BCE written in Ammonite.
Also discovered at the Citadel of Amman is a 9th-century BCE inscription. Written in Ammonite, the Amman Citadel Inscription is likely a construction inscription, but since it is incomplete, its original purpose cannot be definitively determined. The Ammonite god Milcom is mentioned at the beginning of the inscription.
AMMONITE DEITIES.
Several Iron Age representations of Milcom, the chief god of the Ammonites, have survived from Rabbah; one is depicted here. Bearded and with a stern face, Milcom wears an Egyptian crown, a symbol of divinity in Syria-Palestine. This Ammonite statue would have had inlaid eyes.
AMMONITE DEITIES
No Ammonite goddess is identified in the Bible, but it is possible that this double-faced carved head (see also the side view) from the Citadel of Amman depicts an Ammonite goddess. These Ammonite statues would have had inlaid eyes (see the remaining inlaid eye on the goddess), and the holes in the goddess's neck would have been inlaid with jewels.
IMPRESSIVE AMMONITE KING.
In 2010, this large statue of an Ammonite king was discovered in Rabbah, the ancient capital of the Ammonites located in present-day Amman, Jordan. Although it was found next to the Roman theater in the center of Amman, the statue itself dates from a much earlier period — the Iron Age. Made of basalt and over 6.5 feet tall, the bearded statue wears a headband or diadem and holds a fallen lotus figure, which was a symbol of the deceased royalty.
AMMONITE KING
Holding a fallen lotus flower and wearing a headband or diadem, this statuette depicts the Ammonite king Yarḥ-'Azar. Found at the Citadel of Amman, the 14-inch limestone statuette dates to the late 8th century BCE and is currently housed in the Jordan Archaeological Museum in Amman, Jordan. A two-line inscription on the pedestal of the statue identifies the figure as "Yarḥ-'Azar, [son of Za]kir, son of Shanib." Shanib, the grandfather of Yarḥ-'Azar, submitted to the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III around 734 BCE.
Chronology
The Ammonite kingdom flourished between the 10th and 6th centuries BCE, during the Iron Age. Its decline occurred with the rise of the Babylonian Empire, which incorporated the region into its military campaigns.
Moabites: Origin, Etymology, and Territory
The origin of the Moabites traces back to Moab, also the son of Lot with his elder daughter (Genesis 19:37). The name "Moab" may mean "from the father." The Moabite territory was located south of the Arnon River (modern Wadi Mujib), with its capital in Dibon (modern Dhiban), on the plateau of Transjordan.
Relationship with Israel
The Moabites have a history of hostility and interaction with Israel. Despite their common origin, Moab attempted to curse Israel through the prophet Balaam (Numbers 22-24) and was frequently at war with the Israelite kingdom.
Worship
The national god of the Moabites was Chemosh, frequently mentioned in the Mesha Stele. This god was considered responsible for their victories and conquests. The practice of ḥerem (total destruction in the name of Chemosh) was similar to the devotion to Yahweh in Israel.
MESHA STELE.
Standing nearly 4 feet tall and 2 feet wide, the 9th-century BCE Mesha Stele is the longest Moabite inscription. Its 34-line text recounts how the Moabites were subjected to Israelite rule until King Mesha — with the divine help of Chemosh, the principal Moabite deity — overthrew the Moabite oppressors. The first European to see the Mesha Stele was Anglican missionary Frederick Augustus Klein. In 1868, a local Bedouin led him to the basalt stone in Dhiban (biblical Dibon, the capital of the Kingdom of Moab). Arrangements were immediately made to purchase the stone on behalf of the Prussian government and the Berlin Museum, but this agreement fell through.
KERAK INSCRIPTION.
Discovered in 1958 in Kerak, Jordan, the fragmentary Kerak inscription is another Moabite inscription dating to the 9th century BCE. Originally part of a stone statue or relief, the inscription mentions the Moabite king Chemoshyat, the father of Mesha, and Chemosh, the principal god of the Moabites. The inscription was likely commissioned by King Chemoshyat or his son, King Mesha. Measuring about 5 inches tall and 5.5 inches wide, the fragment consists of three lines of text written in Moabite very similar to those seen on the Mesha Stele.
BALUA' STELE
The Balua' Stele — generally dated to the late Bronze Age (1400–1100 BCE) — depicts three figures: a king or chief flanked by a god on the left and a goddess on the right. Both deities appear in Egyptian-style attire, while the central figure wears a Shasu headdress, a typically Egyptian emblem denoting pastoral peoples of Transjordan. The god — possibly the Moabite god Chemosh — hands the central figure a scepter; this scene connotes the divine right of the figure to rule. Coming from the Iron Age site of Balua' in Jordan, the stele is about 6 feet tall and 3 feet wide and includes several lines of undeciphered writing.
The Shihan relief depicts a bare-chested man holding a spear. This warrior figure wears a kilt and a headdress with a long strip or braid ending in a tuft that extends down his back. An animal is depicted below this tuft. This scene, which exhibits Egyptian influences, was carved on a larger basalt stele. The fragment of the Shihan relief was discovered in Jordan in 1851 and is now in the Louvre.
MOABITE ALTARS
Many Moabite altars have been found at Khirbat al-Mudayna (Mudeiniyeh), a forward post about 10.5 miles northeast of Dibon and 20.5 miles east of the Dead Sea. Three limestone altars (two of which are depicted) emerged during excavations of a small temple near the city gate in 1999; all of them were originally broken but have been reconstructed. Measuring about 2.5 feet tall, the rectangular axis altar has a drainage hole (shown here), indicating that this altar was used for pouring libations. Traces of paint were found on this altar.
MOABITE ALTARS
Many Moabite altars have been found at Khirbat al-Mudayna (Mudeiniyeh), a forward post about 10.5 miles northeast of Dibon and 20.5 miles east of the Dead Sea. Three limestone altars emerged during excavations of a small temple near the city gate in 1999; all of them were originally broken but have been reconstructed. Measuring about 2.5 feet tall, the rectangular axis altar (shown here) has a drainage hole, indicating that this altar was used for pouring libations. Traces of paint were found on this altar.
MOABITE ALTARS
Another tall conical altar from the temple likely served as an incense altar. Standing 3.15 feet tall, this altar features a Moabite inscription identifying its creator and owner.
Temple 'Aṭaruz
The 'Aṭaruz Temple, a Moabite temple from the 9th century BCE, was discovered at Khirbat 'Aṭaruz, a site identified with the biblical Ataroth and located in Jordan, about 11 kilometers east of the Dead Sea.
The 'Aṭaruz Temple, a Moabite temple from the 9th century BCE, was discovered at Khirbat 'Aṭaruz, a site identified with the biblical Ataroth and located in Jordan, about 7 miles east of the Dead Sea. Many cult artifacts were found in this Iron Age temple, including a ceramic bull statue (shown here) and a terracotta model of a shrine — both dating to the 9th century BCE. The bull statue was discovered in the central courtyard of the temple.
Chronology
The Moabite kingdom was most active between the 9th and 6th centuries BCE, with its peak recorded in the Mesha Stele (c. 840 BCE). Babylonian dominance also led to the fall of Moab.
Edomites: Origin, Etymology, and Territory
The Edomites descend from Esau, the brother of Jacob, establishing their origin as a nation related to Israel (Genesis 36:1-19). The name "Edom" means "red," likely a reference to the reddish color of the mountainous land of their region. The Edomite territory was located south of the Dead Sea, extending to the Gulf of Aqaba, including mountainous areas like Seir.
Relationship with Israel
Edom had a complex relationship with Israel, oscillating between conflict and alliance. Despite being brother peoples, according to biblical tradition, Edom refused passage to Israel during the Exodus (Numbers 20:14-21) and was frequently at war with Judah.
Worship
The main god of the Edomites was Qos, mentioned in various archaeological inscriptions. Although the Bible is silent about Qos, there is evidence that his worship was central to Edomite identity. Some scholars suggest a possible early connection between Qos and Yahweh, given the geographical and cultural proximity.
EDOMITE INSCRIPTION: "I BLESS YOU BY QAUS."
A short Edomite letter written on this ostracon and dated to the early 6th century BCE was found at Ḥorvat 'Uza, a possible Edomite worship site. Originally, Ḥorvat 'Uza was a Judaean fortress site in eastern Negev but was conquered by the Edomites — likely around the time Judah fell to the Babylonians (586 BCE). This inscription opens with a greeting and then invokes a blessing from the principal Edomite deity, Qos (or Qaus). This letter instructs its recipient, likely the commander of the Edomite fort, to give its bearer some food or send a shipment of grain.
EDOMITE GODDESS
A large collection of Edomite figurines, statuettes, stands, and other cult vessels was discovered at the site of Ḥorvat Qitmit, in southern Judah. Notable among this collection is a sphinx. The 8-inch long sphinx statuette has a human face, eagle wings, and the body of a bull or lion.
EDOMITE GODDESS
A large collection of Edomite figurines, statuettes, stands, and other cult utensils was discovered at the site of Ḥorvat Qitmit, in southern Judah. Notable among this collection is a statuette of an Edomite goddess wearing a three-horned headdress (shown here) dated to the late seventh or early sixth century BCE.
EDOMITE ASSEMBLY
A cache of Edomite ritual vessels was excavated from a repository (a storage pit) near an Iron Age II fortress at the site of Ein Hazeva, located about 14 miles south of the Dead Sea. The site may be the biblical Tamar on the southern border of King Solomon's empire. The cache includes ceramic incense stands, statues, and other objects, as well as stone altars, which were used in the open-air Edomite sanctuary at the site from the 7th century BCE. Some of the incense stands feature human limbs and faces. The bowls on top are decorated with knobs and would have been used to burn incense or other offerings.
KING OF EDOM
A seal impression of an Edomite king found in a palace built on the hill Umm el-Biyara at the famous site of Petra, Jordan, reads “Qaus-ga[bri], King of E[dom].” The name Qaus-ga[bri] is theophoric — carrying the name of the Edomite god Qos (or Qaus).
Chronology
Edom flourished between the 12th and 6th centuries BCE. During the Babylonian period, many Edomites migrated to the Negev, and the region was later incorporated into the Nabatean Empire.
Comparisons with Israel and Judah
Although they shared similar political and religious structures, there are notable differences between Israel, Judah, and the kingdoms of Transjordan. While Ammon, Moab, and Edom produced monumental sculptures and lengthy inscriptions, Israel and Judah left few comparable archaeological evidences. This absence may reflect a cultural distinction, such as the rejection of visual representations in Israelite worship of Yahweh.
These discoveries enrich our understanding of the cultural, political, and religious interactions between Israel and its neighbors, offering a deeper insight into the biblical narratives and the historical context in which they developed.
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